Abstract
Numerous studies have found that rice and water, as components of the human diet, are potential pathways of arsenic exposure in humans. Due to the negative health effects linked with arsenic exposure, the quality of drinking water and rice samples must be continually monitored. This research was carried out in Baguio City, a small urban center in the Philippines. Following microwave digestion, arsenic in rice and water samples were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. The results showed that the National Food Authority (NFA) rice samples had arsenic content below the detection limit, indicating that this commercially available rice does not pose any health risk to Filipino consumers in terms of arsenic exposure. The arsenic value in other rice samples ranged from 8 μg/L to 27 μg/L, with the lowest and highest values found in organic brown rice and white rice varieties, respectively. Despite detectable arsenic in all 20 rice samples, all values were less than the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 150 μg/L. Despite higher arsenic content in mixed rice than in white and organic colored rice, the mean differences are not significant, as proven by the Kruskal Wallis Test. All drinking water samples bought from water refilling stations had no detectable arsenic, while eight of the 18 (44%) of the spring water samples showed detectable amounts but are far below MCL of arsenic in drinking water. The findings suggest that the amount of arsenic in rice and spring water samples are too low to pose health risks over a short period of time.
Keywords: arsenic, rice, water samples, health risks, atomic absorption spectroscopy
References
Abbas, M., & Cheema, K. J. (2019). Correlation studies of arsenic level in drinking water and blood samples of females in district Sheikhupura, Pakistan. Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 22(2), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.47125/jesam/2019_2/01
Agence France-Press (AFP) News (2013). Largest study widens rice, arsenic link in Bangladesh. http://ph.news.yahoo.com/largest-study-widens-rice-arsenic-bangladesh-184854774.html?.tsrc=globe
Apostol, G. L. C., Valenzuela, S., & Seposo, X. (2022). Arsenic in groundwater sources from selected communities surrounding Taal Volcano, Philippines: An exploratory study. Earth, 3(1), 448–459. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth3010027
Assunção, R., Pires, S. M., & Nauta, M. (2019). Risk‐Benefit assessment of foods. EFSA Journal, 17. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2019.e170917
Biswas, B., Chakraborty, A., Chatterjee, D., Pramanik, S., Bhaswati, G., Majumdar, K. K., Nriagu, J. O., Kulkarni, K. Y., Bansiwal, A., Labhasetwar, P., & Bhowmick, S. (2021). Arsenic exposure from drinking water and staple food (rice): A field scale study in rural Bengal for assessment of human health risk. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 228, 113012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.113012
Castro, J. (2019). These are all the different kinds of rice you can buy in the Metro. https://www.yummy.ph/lessons/prepping/where-to-buy-heirloom-rice-a00261-20190405-lfrm
Chen, Y., Han, Y.-H., Cao, Y., Zhu, Y.-G., Rathinasabapathi, B., & Ma, L. Q. (2017). Arsenic transport in rice and biological solutions to reduce arsenic risk from rice. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00268
Chowdhury, N., Das, A., Joardar, M., De, A., Mridha, D., Das, R., Rahman, M. M., & Roychowdhury, T. (2020). Flow of arsenic between rice grain and water: Its interaction, accumulation and distribution in different fractions of cooked rice. Science of the Total Environment, 731, 138937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138937
Ciencia, A. Jr., Mendoza, L. Cruz, G., Calde, N., Cabalfin, M. & Peñalba, M. (2015). Towards establishing water security and urban resilience in the city of Baguio. Asian Cities Climate Resilience Working Paper Series 27. https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10754IIED.pdf
Consumer Reports (2014). How much arsenic is in your rice? https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2015/01/how-much-arsenic-is-in-your-rice/index.htm
Costa, B., Coelho, L., Araújo, C., Rezende, H., & Coelho, N. (2016). Analytical strategies for the determination of arsenic in rice. Journal of Chemistry, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/1427154
Davis, M., Signes‐Pastor, A. J., Argos, M., Slaughter, F., Pendergrast, C., Punshon, T., Gossai, A., Ahsan, H., & Karagas, M. R. (2017). Assessment of human dietary exposure to arsenic through rice. Science of the Total Environment, 586, 1237–1244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.119
Delos Reyes, J., Flores, S. M. and Winona, M.T. (2017). Exposure to Arsenic contaminated water and its association to skin disease prevalence in Inayawan, Cebu. Thesis. http://www.herdin.ph/index.php/herdin-home?view=research&cid=69557
Department of Health (2017, December 22). DOH launches Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017. https://www.doh.gov.ph/node/12121
Department of Health (2017). Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water. https://www.foodshap.com/PNSDW2017.pdf
George, S. (2018.). What are the benefits of organic brown rice? https://www.leaf.tv/6764390/what-are-the-benefits-of-organic-brown-rice/
GMA News Online (2013, July 21). NFA now selling well-milled rice. https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/content/318506/nfa-now-selling-well-milled-rice/story/
Healthline (2019). What is the healthiest type of rice? https://www.ecowatch.com/healthiest-rice-2633703792.html
Hensawang, S. & Chanpiwat, P. (2017). Health impact assessment of arsenic and cadmium intake via rice consumption in Bangkok, Thailand. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 189, 599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6321-8
Hoang, A. T., Prinpreecha, N., & Kim, K. (2021). Influence of mining activities on arsenic concentration in rice in Asia: a review. Minerals, 11(5), 472. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11050472
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (2004). Some drinking-water disinfectants and contaminants, including arsenic. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 84, 1–19.
Interra International (2018). Organic rice – the healthy option. https://interrainternational.com/2018/11/organic-rice-the-healthy-option/
Israel, D. (2009). The cases of Dumaguete City and Agusan del Sur. Philippine Institute for Development Studies Policy Notes No. 2009-01. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6506005.pdf
Jayasumana, C., Paranagama, P., Fonseka, S., Amarasinghe, M. D., Gunatilake, S., & Siribaddana, S. (2015). Presence of arsenic in Sri Lankan rice. International Journal of Food Contamination, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40550-015-0007-1
Joardar, M., Das, A., Mridha, D., De, A., Chowdhury, N., & Roychowdhury, T. (2020). Evaluation of acute and chronic arsenic exposure on school children from exposed and apparently control areas of West Bengal, India. Exposure and Health, 13(1), 33–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00360-x
Karagas, M. R., Punshon, T., Davis, M., Bulka, C. M., Slaughter, F., Karalis, D., Argos, M., & Ahsan, H. (2019). Rice intake and emerging concerns on arsenic in rice: a review of the human evidence and methodologic challenges. Current Environmental Health Reports, 6(4), 361–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-019-00249-1
Kumarathilaka, P., SamanSeneweera, S. SikOk, Y. Meharg, A. & Bundschuh, J. (2019). Arsenic in cooked rice foods: Assessing health risks and mitigation options. Environment International, 127, 584-591.
Lai, P., Cottingham, K. Steinmaus, C., Karagas, M. & Miller, M. (2015). Arsenic and rice: Translating research to address health care providers’ needs. The Journal of Pediatrics, 167(4), 797–803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.07.003
Layug, M. (2018, October 10). NFA sets just 4 labels for rice. GMA News. https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/economy/670805/nfa-sets-just-4-labels-for-rice/story/
Liao, N., Seto, E., Eskenazi, B., Wang, M., Li, Y., & Hua, J. (2018). A comprehensive review of arsenic exposure and risk from rice and a risk assessment among a cohort of adolescents in Kunming, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(10), 2191. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102191
Magalona, M., Peralta, M., Lacsamana, M., Sabularse, V., Pelegrina, A. & de Guzman, C. (2019). Analysis of Inorganic Arsenic (As(III) and Total As) and some physicochemical parameters in groundwater samples from selected areas in Bulacan, Batangas, and Laguna, Philippines. KIMIKA, 30(2), 28-38. https://doi.org/10.26534/kimika.v30i2.28-38
Magtibay, B. (2018). Water Refilling Station: An alternative source of drinking water supply in the Philippines. https://businessdiary.com.ph/835/water-refilling-station-study/
Majumder, S., & Banik, P. (2019). Geographical variation of arsenic distribution in paddy soil, rice and rice-based products: A meta-analytic approach and implications to human health. Journal of Environmental Management, 233, 184–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.12.034
Meharg, A.A. and Zhao, F. (2012). Arsenic & rice. Springer
Mridha, D., Gorain, P. C., Joardar, M., Das, A., Majumder, S., De, A., Chowdhury, N., Lama, U., Pal, R., & Roychowdhury, T. (2022). Rice grain arsenic and nutritional content during post harvesting to cooking: A review on arsenic bioavailability and bioaccessibility in humans. Food Research International, 154, 111042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111042
National Food Authority (2020). https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/section/briefing-room/department-of-agriculture/national-food-authority-department-of-agriculture/
National Research Council (2001). Arsenic in drinking water: 2001 update. National Academy Press.
National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (2010). Thai agricultural standard 9000 part 4 – 2010, Organic agriculture part 4: Organic rice. https://www.acfs.go.th/standard/download/eng/ORGANIC_RICE_part4.pdf
Nguyen, H. P. A., Cu, Y. H., Watchalayann, P., & Soonthornchaikul, N. (2020). Assessing inorganic arsenic in rice and its health risk to consumers in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Journal of Health Research, 35(5), 402–414. https://doi.org/10.1108/jhr-09-2019-0221
Nuvolone, D., Stoppa, G., Petri, D., & Voller, F. (2023). Long-term exposure to low-level arsenic in drinking water is associated with cause-specific mortality and hospitalization in the Mt. Amiata area (Tuscany, Italy). BMC Public Health, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14818-x
Nunes, L. S., Li, G., Chen, W., Meharg, A. A., O’Connor, P. J., & Zhu, Y. (2022). Embedded Health Risk from Arsenic in Globally Traded Rice. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(10), 6415–6425. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c08238
Rahmanian, N. Ali, S.H., Homayoonfard, M., Ali, N., Rehan, M., Sadef, Y., & Nizami, A. (2015). Analysis of physiochemical parameters to evaluate the drinking water quality in the state of Perak, Malaysia. Journal of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/716125
Ramly, N., Mahir, H. M. A., Azmi, W. N. F. W., Hashim, Z., Hashim, J. H., & Shaharudin, R. (2023). Arsenic in drinking water, hair, and prevalence of arsenicosis in Perak, Malaysia. Frontiers in Public Health, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.998511
Rettner, R. (2013). Arsenic in rice not a risk over short term, FDA Finds. http://www.livescience.com/39474-arsenic-rice-fda.html
Rokonuzzaman, M., Li, W. C., Man, Y. B., Tsang, Y. F., & Ye, Z. (2022). Arsenic accumulation in rice: sources, human health impact and probable mitigation approaches. Rice Science/Rice Science, 29(4), 309–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsci.2022.02.002
See, D. (2020). NFA assures sufficient rice supply for Baguio, Benguet. http://www.baguio.gov.ph/content/nfa-assures-sufficient-rice-supply-baguio-benguet
Sharma, A.K., Tjell, J.C., Sloth, J.J. & Holm, P.E. (2014). Review of arsenic contamination, exposure through water and food and low cost mitigation options for rural areas. Applied Geochemistry, 41, 11-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.11.012
Shraim, A. (2017). Rice is a potential dietary source of not only arsenic but also other toxic elements like lead and chromium. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 10, S3434–S3443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2014.02.004
Signes‐Pastor, A. J., Carey, M., & Meharg, A. A. (2016). Inorganic arsenic in rice-based products for infants and young children. Food Chemistry, 191, 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.11.078
Sobel, M. H., Sanchez, T. R., Jones, M. R., Kaufman, J. D., Francesconi, K. A., Blaha, M. J., Vaidya, D., Shimbo, D., Gossler, W., Gamble, M. V., Genkinger, J. M., & Navas‐Acien, A. (2020). Rice Intake, Arsenic Exposure, and Subclinical Cardiovascular Disease Among US Adults in MESA. Journal of the American Heart Association, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1161/jaha.119.015658
Soe, A. M. M., Mu, A. A., & Toyoda, K. (2023). Arsenic and heavy metal contents in white rice samples from rainfed paddy fields in Yangon division, Myanmar—Natural background levels? PloS One, 18(3), e0283420. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283420
States, J.C., Barchowsky, A., Cartwright, I.L., Reichard, J.F., Futscher, B.W. & Lantz, R.C. (2011). Arsenic toxicology: Translating between experimental models and human pathology. Environmental Health Perspective. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1103441
Su, L. J., Chiang, T., & O’Connor, S. N. (2023). Arsenic in brown rice: do the benefits outweigh the risks? Frontiers in Nutrition, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1209574
United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization (UN FAO/WHO) (2011). Safety evaluation of certain contaminants in food. Prepared by the sixty-fourth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). FAO Food and Nutrition Paper.
Uppal, J. S., Zheng, Q., & Le, X. C. (2019). Arsenic in drinking water—recent examples and updates from Southeast Asia. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 7, 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2019.01.004
US Food and Drug Administration (2016). Arsenic in rice and rice products risk assessment report. https://www.fda.gov/files/food/published/Arsenic-in-Rice-and-Rice-Products-Risk-Assessment-Report-PDF.pdf
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2014). Arsenic in rice and rice products. http://www.fda.gov/food/foodborneillnesscontaminants/metals/ucm319870.htm
Watson, C., & Gustave, W. (2022). Prevalence of arsenic contamination in rice and the potential health risks to the Bahamian population—A preliminary study. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1011785
World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (2004). Some drinking-water disinfectants and contaminants, including arsenic. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 84, 1–19.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2019). Drinking water. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water
World Health Organization (WHO) (2018). Arsenic. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/arsenic
WHO (2014). Environmental health criteria, No. 224: Arsenic and arsenic compounds. http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/ehc/ehc_224/en/
Yim, S. R., Park, G. Y., Lee, K. W., Chung, M. S., & Shim, S. M. (2017). Determination of total arsenic content and arsenic speciation in different types of rice. Food Science and Biotechnology/Food Science and Biotechnology, 26(1), 293–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-017-0039-9
