Seeing is deceiving: A content analysis of AI-generated political misinformation and its influence on trust in government officials
Justine S. Leomo, Fem Jhullian C. Reyes, Princess Tiffany B. Telos, Siou-Sian Chen & Annika Jordan F. Dela Cruz
Abstract
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has delivered unprecedented opportunities and also spawned new societal hazards in today’s rapidly evolving technological context. One of the most concerning threats involves the increasing prevalence of AI-generated political misinformation, which undermines democratic dialogue and public faith. This qualitative content analysis studied how this misinformation is created and shared in TikTok through five purposively selected videos, and audience comments on the videos. A two-cycle coding process, descriptive coding, and thematic analysis were used to conduct the qualitative content analysis. Inter-coder reliability was determined through Cohen’s Kappa (κ = .82), thus showing strong agreement, and reflexivity and anonymizing were used for rigor and ethics-related issues. The study revealed five interrelated themes that illustrate the layered strategies of misinformation: polarized narratives, which reduce politics to moral binaries of heroes and villains; engineered authenticity, which uses realistic visuals and synthetic voices to mimic credibility; linguistic persuasion, which employs rhetorical and emotional cues to foster skepticism; emotional amplification, which manipulates affective responses such as outrage or admiration; and credibility hybridization, which merges real and fabricated elements to blur truth and fiction. These layers form a credibility stack, a multimodal structure combining narrative, visual, linguistic, and emotional manipulation to enhance believability. AI-generated misinformation is more persuasive and difficult to detect than traditional propaganda, hence, this study calls for strengthened media literacy initiatives and policy safeguards to mitigate its influence on democratic discourse.
Keywords
AI-generated political contents, TikTok, political communication, content analysis, media literacy
Author information & Contribution
Justine S. Leomo. Corresponding author. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics student. Columban College, Inc. email: leomojustine@gmail.com
Fem Jhullian C. Reyes. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics student. Columban College, Inc.
Princess Tiffany B. Telos. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics student. Columban College, Inc.
Siou-Sian Chen. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics student. Columban College, Inc.
Annika Jordan F. Dela Cruz. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics student. Columban College, Inc.
"Author 1 oversaw and conceptualized the overall work, from revision to finalization, and provided assistance in various parts of the study. Author 2 gathered, analyzed, and interpreted the data collected for the research. Authors 3, 4, and 5 primarily conducted the review of related literature and contributed to other written components of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the writing and approval of the final version of the manuscript."
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was not supported by any funding.
Declaration
The authors declare the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in writing this paper. In particular, the authors used Grammarly in checking grammar, summarizing key points and paraphrasing ideas. The authors take full responsibility in ensuring proper review and editing of contents generated using AI.
Notes
This paper is a finalist in the 5th International Research Competition (IRC) and presented in the 3rd International Student Research Congress (ISRC).
Acknowledgement
This research formally acknowledges Columban College, Inc. for providing the academic foundation, institutional framework, and scholarly environment necessary for the successful completion of this study. The institution’s commitment to research excellence, intellectual discipline, and academic integrity fostered a setting that encouraged critical inquiry and systematic investigation. Through its established academic standards, research-oriented policies, and commitment to ethical scholarship, the institution played a significant role in shaping the direction and scope of this research project.
In addition, Columban College, Inc. supported this study through access to academic resources, research facilities, and institutional guidance that strengthened the overall research process. The institution’s emphasis on methodological rigor, evidence-based inquiry, and scholarly accountability contributed to the credibility and coherence of the study. Its continued support for academic development and knowledge production ensured that this research aligned with recognized academic standards and contributed meaningfully to the advancement of the discipline.
The researcher also formally acknowledges Dr. John Den Saul L. Dalan for their invaluable academic supervision, intellectual insights, and methodological guidance throughout the duration of the research. The adviser’s expertise played a crucial role during the conceptualization of the research problem, formulation of the research design, and refinement of the analytical framework. Their scholarly direction and constructive evaluations enabled the researcher to strengthen the clarity, structure, and academic relevance of the study.
Furthermore, Dr. John Den Saul L. Dalan provided sustained professional mentorship that significantly enhanced the rigor, validity, and scholarly merit of the research. Their critical feedback, attention to academic precision, and adherence to ethical research practice guided the interpretation of the findings and the articulation of conclusions. The adviser’s commitment to academic excellence ensured that the research maintained coherence, methodological integrity, and alignment with established scholarly conventions. Through their guidance, this study was refined into a work that upholds academic responsibility and contributes to informed and critical discourse within the field of study.
References
Alshwayyat, H., & Vázquez-Herrero, J. (2025). Fact-checking platforms in the Middle East: A comparative study in the age of artificial intelligence. Social Sciences, 15(3), Article 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15030185
Banlasan, J. A. G., & Reytana, J. T. (2025). The perceived influence of propaganda in understanding civic issues. The Research Probe, 5(2), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.53378/trp.196
Berger, L. M., Kerkhof, A., Mindl, F., & Münster, J. (2025). Debunking “fake news” on social media: Immediate and short-term effects of fact-checking and media literacy interventions. Journal of Public Economics, 245, Article 105345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105345
Bontridder, N., & Poullet, Y. (2021). The role of artificial intelligence in disinformation. Data & Policy, 3, e32. https://doi.org/10.1017/dap.2021.20
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Brooks, C. F. (2021). Popular discourse around deepfakes and the interdisciplinary challenge of fake video distribution. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(3), 159–163. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0183
Chu-Ke, C., & Dong, Y. (2024). Misinformation and literacies in the era of generative artificial intelligence: A brief overview and a call for future research. Emerging Media, 2(1), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/27523543241240285
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446002000104
Estrellado, C. J. P., Millar, G. B., Rey, F. I., & Arcinas, M. M. (2025). Deepfakes, of prey? Precursors and eclipses to the macrocosm Philippine politics. International Review of Social Sciences Research, 5(3), 26–53. https://doi.org/10.53378/irssr.353234
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Harper & Row.
Graneheim, U. H., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24(2), 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001
Greer, J., Fitzgerald, K., & Vijaykumar, S. (2022). Narrative elaboration makes misinformation and corrective information regarding COVID-19 more believable. BMC Research Notes, 15, Article 235. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-022-06134-9
Groh, M., Sankaranarayanan, A., Kim, D., Lippman, A., & Picard, R. (2024). Human detection of political speech deepfakes across transcripts, audio, and video. Nature Communications, 15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51998-z
Jaidka, K., Chen, T., Chesterman, S., Hsu, W., Kan, M.-Y., Kankanhalli, M., Lee, M. L., Seres, G., Sim, T., Taeihagh, A., Tung, A., Xiao, X., & Yue, A. (2025). Misinformation, disinformation, and generative AI: Implications for policy and research. Digital Government: Research and Practice, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1145/3689372
Kim, H. S., Suh, Y. J., Kim, E.-M., Chong, E., Hong, H., Song, B., Ko, Y., & Choi, J. S. (2022). Fact-checking and audience engagement: A study of content analysis and audience behavioral data of fact-checking coverage from news media. Digital Journalism, 10(5), 781–800. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.2006073
Krippendorff, K. (2019). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
Lan, D. H., & Tung, T. M. (2024). Exploring fake news awareness and trust in the age of social media among university student TikTok users. Cogent Social Sciences, 10(1), Article 2302216. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2024.2302216
Lauengco, G. (2024). AI deep fakes – technology and politics 2025. Philippine News Agency. https://tinyurl.com/4bp7yfmc
Li, J., & Chang, X. (2022). Combating misinformation by sharing the truth: A study on the spread of fact-checks on social media. Information Systems Frontiers, 1–15. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-022-10296-z
Lombard, M., Snyder-Duch, J., & Bracken, C. C. (2006). Content analysis in mass communication: Assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human Communication Research, 28(4), 587–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00826.x
López-Borrull, A., & Lopezosa, C. (2025). Mapping the impact of generative AI on disinformation: Insights from a scoping review. Publications, 13(3), 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications13030033
Mendoza, R. U., Elemia, C. K. S., Recto, J. M. M., & de Castro, B. A. B. (2023). When fake news infects political networks: Case study of the Tallano Gold myth in the Philippines. Media Asia, 50(4), 501–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2023.2217607
Ong, J. C., & Cabañes, J. V. A. (2019). When disinformation studies meets production studies: Social identities and moral justifications in the political trolling industry. International Journal of Communication, 13, 5771–5790. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/11417
Ortlipp, M. (2008). Keeping and using reflective journals in the qualitative research process. The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 695–705. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2008.1579
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
Pérez-Escoda, A., Pedrero-Esteban, L. M., Rubio-Romero, J., & Jiménez-Narros, C. (2021). Fake news reaching young people on social networks: Distrust challenging media literacy. Publications, 9(2), 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9020024
Putra, B. A. (2024). Fake news and disinformation in Southeast Asia: How should ASEAN respond? Frontiers in Communication, 9, Article 1380944. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2024.1380944
Romanishyn, A., Malytska, O., & Goncharuk, V. (2025). AI-driven disinformation: Policy recommendations for democratic resilience. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 8, 1569115. https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1569115
Sabri, F. A. A. (2024). Narrative review on detonation of AI-generated deep fakes and misinformation: A threat to politicians in Malaysia. E-Journal of Media and Society, 7(2), 71–88. https://ir.uitm.edu.my/id/eprint/97612
Scheibenzuber, C., Neagu, L.-M., Ruseti, S., Artmann, B., Bartsch, C., Kubik, M., Dascalu, M., Trausan-Matu, S., & Nistor, N. (2023). Dialog in the echo chamber: Fake news framing predicts emotion, argumentation and dialogic social knowledge building in subsequent online discussions. Computers in Human Behavior, 140, Article 107587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107587
Schipper, T. (2025). Disinformation by design: Leveraging solutions to combat misinformation in the Philippines’ 2025 election. Data & Policy, 7, Article e39. https://doi.org/10.1017/dap.2025.18
Surjatmodjo, D., Unde, A., Cangara, H., & Sonni, A. (2024). Information pandemic: A critical review of disinformation spread on social media and its implications for state resilience. Social Sciences, 13(8), 418. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13080418
Tan, W., Su, Y., Liu, X., Akmatbekova, Z., & Halilov, A. (2025). Research on the causes and coping strategies of the spread of false news in the era of social media. News Research Journal, 47(1), 86–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/30497841251404968
Vaccari, C., & Chadwick, A. (2020). Deepfakes and disinformation: Exploring the impact of synthetic political video on deception. Social Media + Society, 6(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120903408
Wang, G., Frederick, R., Duan, J., Wong, W., Rupar, V., Li, W., & Bai, Q. (2025). Detecting misinformation through framing theory: The frame element-based model. Journal of Computational Social Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-025-00403-w
Cite this article:
Leomo, J.S., Reyes, F.J.C., Telos, P.T.B., Chen, S. & Dela Cruz, A.J.F. (2026). Seeing is deceiving: A content analysis of AI-generated political misinformation and its influence on trust in government officials. The Research Probe, 6(1), 204-223. https://doi.org/10.53378/trp.227
License:
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) International License.
Most read articles
- Senior High School Strand Alignment and Its Implication to The Tertiary Programs: A Basis for Bridging Program
- Reading Comprehension Difficulties Among Junior High School Learners
- Difficulties in the writing skills of Grade 11 HUMSS students
- Factors Influencing Reading Comprehension and Difficulties Among Intermediate Learners: Basis For Developing Remedial Reading Intervention
- Identifying gender stereotypes of high school LGBTQ students
- Disaster risk reduction and management on earthquake preparedness: An assessment
- Lived experiences of senior high school focal persons in the implementation of work immersion program
- Digital Marketing Strategies Used by Competing Coffee Shops in Candelaria, Quezon: Perspective of Employees
- Technical vocational students’ higher learning institution preference and level of academic and skills preparedness
- Analysis of school rules and regulation implementation: Basis for policy enhancement program