Enablers of transnational organized crime in Africa: A 21st-century perspective
Tolulope Lembola Ojolo & Shanta Balgobind Singh
Abstract
Transnational organized crime (TOC) persists as a significant catalyst for illicit economies and social upheaval in Africa. While comprehensive national estimates quantifying TOC’s impact remain elusive for numerous African nations, recent research underscores its pervasive nature across the continent. Notably, sophisticated cybercrime networks originating in West Africa have extended their reach globally, affecting millions and resulting in substantial financial losses. This study presents a scoping review of the existing literature, pinpointing the primary factors that enable and influence TOC proliferation in Africa. Conducted in June 2024, the review utilized Boolean search strategies to sift through multiple databases, including JSTOR, Springer Nature, and publications from the U.S. Department of Justice and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). From this extensive search, twenty relevant studies were identified. These studies revealed that TOC in Africa is enabled by chronic political instability, systemic corruption, and enduring socioeconomic hardship. The illegal enterprise model is adopted as a theoretical framework to understand the evolution and adaptation of transnational organized crime. The rapid advancement of digital technologies and increasing globalization have further expanded the operational capabilities of these networks, facilitating cross-border crime and undermining state control. Limited institutional capacity, under-resourced law enforcement, and fragmented responses exacerbate the challenge. TOCs continue to undermine governance, economic growth, and social cohesion, and require coordinated and adaptive regional strategies for sustained intervention.
Keywords
transnational organized crime, globalization, technology, criminal entrepreneurship, cybercrime
Author information & Contribution
Tolulope Lembola Ojolo. Corresponding author. Researcher, Department of Criminology and Forensic, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Email: ojolotolulope@gmail.com
Shanta Balgobind Singh. Department of Criminology, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Email: singhsb@ukzn.ac.za
"All authors equally contributed to the conception, design, preparation, data gathering and analysis, and writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript."
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This work was not supported by any funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not Applicable.
AI Declaration
AI tools were not used in writing this paper.
Notes
Acknowledgement
References
Adisa, W. (2021). Transnational organized crime, terrorist financing, and Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. Journal of Terrorism Studies, 3(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.7454/jts.v3i1.1028
Albanese, J. S. (2023). Development and surges of organized crime: An application of enterprise theory. In Organized crime in the 21st century: Motivations, opportunities, and constraints (pp. 11–24). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616
Barak, G. (Ed.). (2015). The Routledge international handbook of the crimes of the powerful (pp. 515–525). London: Routledge.
Bouchard, M. (2020). Collaboration and boundaries in organized crime: A network perspective. Crime and Justice, 49(1), 425–469. https://doi.org/10.1086/708435
Boyd, M. A., & Henkin, S. (2022). TOC as a growing threat to regional, global security. Global Security Review, 2(1), 8.
Campana, P., & Meneghini, C. (2024). Organised crime movement across local communities: A network approach. Trends in Organized Crime, 27(3), 286–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-024-09531-7
Cockayne, J., & Roth, A. (2017). Crooked states: How organized crime and corruption will impact governance in 2050 and what states can–and should–do about it now. United Nations University Report.
Cretu-Adatte, C., Azi, J. W., Beaudet-Labrecque, O., Bunning, H., Brunoni, L., & Zbinden, R. (2024). Unravelling the organisation of Ivorian cyberfraudsters: Criminal networks or organised crime? Journal of Economic Criminology, 3, 100056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100056
De Franco, A. (2024). The non-entrepreneurial and anti-entrepreneurial nature of organised crime: Theoretical issues and policy implications. IREF Working Paper.
Di Nicola, A. (2022). Towards digital organized crime and digital sociology of organized crime. Trends in Organized Crime, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-022-09457-y
Enderwick, P. (2019). Understanding cross-border crime: The value of international business research. Critical Perspectives on International Business, 15(2/3), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1108/cpoib-01-2019-0006
Eyo, I., & Okebugwu, G. C. (2024). Analysis of fundamental challenges in the combat of transnational crimes. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 8(4), 1297–1318. https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.804097
Frowd, P. M. (2018). Security at the borders: Transnational practices and technologies in West Africa. Cambridge University Press.
Gulyás, A. (2024). Cybercrime and dark web in Africa. Journal of Central and Eastern European African Studies, 4(3–4), 109–129. https://doi.org/10.12700/jceeas.2024.4.3-4.278
Hall, T., Sanders, B., Bah, M., King, O., & Wigley, E. (2021). Economic geographies of the illegal: The multiscalar production of cybercrime. Trends in Organized Crime, 24, 282–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-020-09392-w
Haller, M. H. (1990). Illegal enterprise: A theoretical and historical interpretation. Criminology, 28(2), 207–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1990.tb01324.x
Hignett, K. (2021). Transnational organized crime and the global village. In Routledge handbook of transnational organized crime (pp. 305–317). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003044703
Hunter, M., Sibanda, M., Opala, K., Kaka, J., & Modi, L. P. (2021). Illicit gold markets in East and Southern Africa. Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime.
Kassab, H. S., & Rosen, J. D. (2018). Illicit markets, organized crime, and global security. Springer.
Khalil, H., Peters, M., Godfrey, C. M., McInerney, P., Soares, C. B., & Parker, D. (2016). An evidence‐based approach to scoping reviews. Worldviews on Evidence‐Based Nursing, 13(2), 118–123. https://doi.org/10.11124/JBIES-21-00242
Medina, L., & Schneider, F. (2021). The evolution of shadow economies through the 21st century. In The global informal workforce: Priorities for inclusive growth (pp. 10–16). International Monetary Fund.
Ojolo, T. L., & Singh, S. B. (2024). The economic dimensions of transnational organised crime in Southern and Western Africa. International Review of Social Sciences Research, 4(4), 80–106. https://doi.org/10.53378/irssr.353126
Rizk, J. (2024). Exploring the nexus between armed groups and the trafficking and smuggling of human beings in the Central Sahel and Libya. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 47(7), 771–791. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.2002687
Saito, H. (2021, April 15). What criminals plan via encrypted messaging services. InSight Crime. https://insightcrime.org/news/what-criminals-plan-via-encrypted-messaging-services/
Sergi, A., Reid, A., Storti, L., & Easton, M. (2021). The future of port security. In Ports, crime and security (pp. 111–133). Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/10.51952/9781529217735.ch004
Shaw, M., & Reitano, T. (2019). Organized crime and criminal networks in Africa. In Oxford research encyclopedia of politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.742
Stephen, S. (2024). Literature review: Definitions, descriptions, typologies, and conceptual models. In An ontology of organized crime (pp. 17–60). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003485872
Teyi, S. S., Larsen, M. M., & Namatovu, R. (2023). Entrepreneurial identity and response strategies in the informal economy. Journal of Business Research, 165, 114047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114047
Titeca, K. (2019). Illegal ivory trade as transnational organized crime? An empirical study into ivory traders in Uganda. The British Journal of Criminology, 59(1), 24–44. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azy009
Tung, G. (2021). Technology as a tool for transnational organized crime: Networking and money laundering. The Journal of Intelligence, Conflict, and Warfare, 4(1), 118–127. https://doi.org/10.21810/jicw.v4i1.2820
Udo, O., & Agbai, E. (2024). Terrorism in Sub-Saharan Africa and the illegal financial inflows: The nexus. Journal of Political Science and Leadership Research, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.56201/jpslr.v10.no2.2024.pg18.36
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2022). Annual report 2022. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2023-04/Annual-Report-2022.pdf
Von Lampe, K. (2021). The practice of transnational organized crime. In Routledge handbook of transnational organized crime (pp. 200–214). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003044703
Williams, C. C. (2019). The informal economy. London: Agenda Publishing.
Wyatt, T., van Uhm, D., & Nurse, A. (2020). Differentiating criminal networks in the illegal wildlife trade: Organized, corporate and disorganized crime. Trends in Organized Crime, 23, 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-020-09385-9
Cite this article:
Ojolo, T.L. & Singh, S.B. (2025). Enablers of transnational organized crime in Africa: A 21st-century perspective. International Review of Social Sciences Research, 5(3), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.53378/irssr.353229
License:
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) International License.
Find this article in:
Most read articles
- Social media usage and the academic performance of Filipino junior high school students
- Exploring the factors influencing commuters’ satisfaction and the use of public utility buses in Quezon City, Philippines
- A narrative exploration of romantic experiences and ideal relationship standards among Filipino Gen Z
- Students’ exposure to social media and their radical involvement on the societal issues in the Philippines
- ChatGPT integration significantly boosts personalized learning outcomes: A Philippine study
- Tiktok made me book it: The impact of Tiktok on tourism destination selection of generation Z and millennials in Manila
- Senior high school students’ awareness and literacy on computer software applications
- Self-perception of ABM students towards their academic, social and emotional college preparedness
- Enhancing financial literacy among Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program beneficiaries
- Emotional intelligence and leadership efficacy of university student leaders