Evaluating a PERMA model intervention for reducing essentialist beliefs and enhancing well-being among older adults
Inderpreet Sandhu & Amarpreet Kaur Dhaliwal
Abstract
Essentialist beliefs refer to the assumption that social categories possess inherent, unchangeable characteristics or an underlying ‘essence.’ In the context of ageing, such beliefs imply that ageing is a biologically predetermined process that cannot be altered. Holding these rigid views can be detrimental to an individual’s life and well-being, particularly in later years. The current study focuses on exploring the dynamic interplay between essentialist beliefs and well-being among older adult population. It also assesses the effectiveness of a PERMA model–based intervention in reducing essentialist beliefs and promoting well-being. Essentialist Beliefs about Ageing Questionnaire and the PERMA Profiler were used for this study. Essentialist beliefs were found to be negatively associated with well-being among older adults. The PERMA model–based intervention demonstrated efficacy in reducing essentialist beliefs and enhancing well-being. Despite the respondents endorsing strong essentialist beliefs about ageing, a substantial proportion also reported high levels of well-being. This pattern suggests that sociodemographic factors may play an important protective role, potentially buffering the negative impact of essentialist beliefs on the ageing experience. The findings highlight the importance of maintaining favourable and flexible view on ageing for higher levels of well-being during old age. This research also emphasises on the significance of performing simple daily activities as a means of the intervention in reducing essentialist beliefs and enhancing the level of well-being during later life.
Keywords
ageing, non-essentialist, well-being, PERMA, essentialist beliefs about ageing
Author information & Contribution
Inderpreet Sandhu. Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India.
Amarpreet Kaur Dhaliwal. Corresponding author. PhD Scholar, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India. Email: amarpreet.k.dhaliwal@gmail.com
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was not supported by any funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
This study was reviewed and approved in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the Institutional Ethics Committee of Punjabi University, Patiala, as part of the author’s doctoral dissertation.
AI Declaration
AI tools were not used in writing this paper.
Notes
Acknowledgement
References
Ang, R., & Jiaqing, O. (2012). Association between caregiving, meaning in life, and life satisfaction beyond 50 in an Asian sample: Age as a moderator. Social Indicators Research, 108(3), 525–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9891-9
Bailey, A. H., Knobe, J., & Newman, G. E. (2021). Value-based essentialism: Essentialist beliefs about social groups with shared values. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(10), 1994–2008. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000822
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1–34). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665684.003
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2006). Psychological essentialism and stereotype endorsement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 228–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.003
Becker, E. (1962). The birth and death of meaning. Free Press.
Belo, P., Navarro-Pardo, E., Pocinho, R., Carrana, P., & Margarido, C. (2020). Relationship between mental health and the education level in elderly people: Mediation of leisure attitude. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 573. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00573
Biswas, D. (2023). The psychological well-being and self-efficacy of elderly individuals in community and residential care facility: A cross-sectional study (Doctoral dissertation, Bangladesh Health Professions Institute, University of Dhaka). http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/1038
Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x
Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. J. (2008). Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle? Social Science & Medicine, 66(8), 1733–1749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030
Boyle, P. A., Buchman, A. S., & Bennett, D. A. (2010). Purpose in life is associated with a reduced risk of incident disability among community-dwelling older persons. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(12), 1093–1102. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181d6c259
Bryant, C., Bei, B., Gilson, K., Komiti, A., Jackson, H., & Judd, F. (2012). The relationship between attitudes to aging and physical and mental health in older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(10), 1674–1683. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610212000774
Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i3.1
Cadmus, E. O., Adebusoye, L. A., & Owoaje, E. T. (2021). Attitude towards ageing and perceived health status of community-dwelling older persons in a low-resource setting: A rural–urban comparison. BMC Geriatrics, 21(1), 454. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02394-5
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American Psychologist, 54(3), 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.165
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. Basic Books.
Delle Fave, A., Bassi, M., Boccaletti, E. S., Roncaglione, C., Bernardelli, G., & Mari, D. (2018). Promoting well-being in old age: The psychological benefits of two training programs of adapted physical activity. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 828. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00828
Diehl, M., Rebok, G. W., Roth, D. L., Nehrkorn-Bailey, A., Rodriguez, D., Tseng, H.-Y., & Chen, D. (2023). Examining the malleability of negative views of aging, self-efficacy beliefs, and behavioral intentions in middle-aged and older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 78(12), 2009–2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbad130
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040–1048. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040
Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.
Dweck, C. S., & Master, A. (2009). Self-theories and motivation: Students’ beliefs about intelligence. In K. R. Wenzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 123–140). Routledge.
Dziechciaż, M., & Filip, R. (2014). Biological, psychological, and social determinants of old age: Bio-psycho-social aspects of human aging. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 21(4), 835–838. https://doi.org/10.5604/12321966.1129943
Far, I. K., Ferron, M., Ibarra, F., Baez, M., Tranquillini, S., Casati, F., & Doppio, N. (2015). The interplay of physical and social wellbeing in older adults: Investigating the relationship between physical training and social interactions with virtual social environments. PeerJ Computer Science, 1, e30. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.30
Faudzi, F. N. M., Armitage, C. J., Bryant, C., & Brown, L. J. E. (2019). Moderating effects of age on relationships between attitudes to aging and well-being outcomes. Aging & Mental Health, 24(10), 1620–1626. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1619167
Forgeard, M. J. C., Jayawickreme, E., Kern, M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Doing the right thing: Measuring wellbeing for public policy. International Journal of Wellbeing, 1(1), 79–106. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v1i1.15
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
Fuente-Hernández, L., de la Fuente-Ruiz, E., & Gracia-García, P. (2025). Using social media-based positive education to challenge negative stereotypes of aging: A quasi-experimental approach. BMC Public Health, 25, 533. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21327-0
Hertzog, C., Kramer, A. F., Wilson, R. S., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development: Can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(1), 1–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01034.x
Ho, Y.-F., Tseng, M.-C., & Hsu, P.-T. (2025). The impact of life story groups on enhancing attitudes toward aging in older adults: A mixed-methods study. BMC Geriatrics, 25, 389. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-025-05900-1
Hoppmann, C. A., Infurna, F. J., Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2017). Associations among individuals’ perceptions of future time, individual resources, and subjective well-being in old age. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72(3), 388–399. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv063
Infurna, F. J., & Gerstorf, D. (2014). Perceived control relates to better functional health and lower cardio-metabolic risk: The mediating role of physical activity. Health Psychology, 33(1), 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030208
Irving, J., Davis, S., & Collier, A. (2017). Aging with purpose: Systematic search and review of literature pertaining to older adults and purpose. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 85(4), 403–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415017702908
Ishikawa, M. (2023). Internalization of negative societal views on old age into self-perceptions of aging: Exploring factors associated with self-directed ageism. Frontiers in Sociology, 8, 1291325. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2023.1291325
Jang, Y., Poon, L. W., Kim, S.-Y., & Shin, B.-K. (2004). Self-perception of aging and health among older adults in Korea. Journal of Aging Studies, 18(4), 485–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2004.06.001
Karaboga, T., Erdal, N., Karaboga, H. A., & Tatoglu, E. (2022). Creativity as a mediator between personal accomplishment and task performance: A multigroup analysis based on gender during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Psychology, 42(15), 12517–12529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02510-z
Keyes, C. L. M. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090197
Khodabakhsh, S. (2022). Factors affecting life satisfaction of older adults in Asia: A systematic review. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23(3), 1289–1304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00433-x
Kray, L. J., & Haselhuhn, M. P. (2007). Implicit negotiation beliefs and performance: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(1), 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.1.49
Langer, E. J. (2009). Counterclockwise: Mindful health and the power of possibility. Ballantine Books.
Levinsky, M., & Schiff, M. (2021). Lifetime cumulative adversity and physical health deterioration in old age: Evidence from a fourteen-year longitudinal study. Social Science & Medicine, 289, 114407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114407
Levy, B. (2009). Stereotype embodiment: A psychosocial approach to aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(6), 332–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01662.x
Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., Kunkel, S. R., & Kasl, S. V. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.261
Long, S., Laidlaw, K., Lorimer, A., & Ferreira, N. (2021). Attitudes to ageing and quality of life in young and old older adults: An international cross-sectional analysis. Working with Older People, 25(1), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1108/WWOP-06-2020-0032
Ma, Y., Zhang, B., & Wang, M. (2024). A diary study of daily negative aging stereotypes and goal pursuit in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 79(6), gbae049. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbae049
Marioni, R. E., Harris, S. E., Shah, S., McRae, A. F., von Zglinicki, T., Martin-Ruiz, C., Wray, N. R., Visscher, P. M., & Deary, I. J. (2016). The epigenetic clock and telomere length are independently associated with chronological age and mortality. International Journal of Epidemiology, 45(2), 424–432. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw041
Medin, D., & Ortony, A. (1989). Comments on Part I: Psychological essentialism. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 179–196). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511529863.009
Mitchell, U. A., Ailshire, J. A., Brown, L. L., Levine, M. E., & Crimmins, E. M. (2018). Education and psychosocial functioning among older adults: Four-year change in sense of control and hopelessness. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 73(5), 849–859. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw031
Mohseni, M., Iranpour, A., Naghibzadeh-Tahami, A., Kazazi, L., & Borhaninejad, V. (2019). The relationship between meaning in life and resilience in older adults: A cross-sectional study. Health Psychology Report, 7(2), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2019.85659
Musich, S., Wang, S. S., Kraemer, S., Hawkins, K., & Wicker, E. (2018). Purpose in life and positive health outcomes among older adults. Population Health Management, 21(2), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1089/pop.2017.0063
Perini, U., & Sironi, E. (2016). Marital status and psychological well-being: A cross-sectional analysis. Rivista Internazionale di Scienze Sociali, 124(1), 41–48. http://hdl.handle.net/10807/100376
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (2007). Psychological essentialism of human categories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(4), 202–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00504.x
Pressman, S. D., & Cohen, S. (2005). Does positive affect influence health? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 925–971. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.925
Reyes, M. F., Satorres, E., & Meléndez, J. C. (2020). Resilience and socioeconomic status as predictors of life satisfaction and psychological well-being in Colombian older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 39(3), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464819867554
Robertson, G. (2016). Attitudes towards ageing and their impact on health and wellbeing in later life: An agenda for further analysis. Working with Older People, 20(4), 214–218. https://doi.org/10.1108/WWOP-08-2016-0019
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Ryff, C. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83(1), 10–28. https://doi.org/10.1159/000353263
Sargent-Cox, K. A., Anstey, K. J., & Luszcz, M. A. (2012). The relationship between change in self-perceptions of aging and physical functioning in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 27(3), 750–760. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027578
Seeman, T. E., Lusignolo, T. M., Albert, M., & Berkman, L. (2001). Social relationships, social support, and patterns of cognitive aging in healthy, high-functioning older adults: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Health Psychology, 20(4), 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.20.4.243
Seligman, M. E. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.
Seligman, M. E., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Stone, A. A., Schwartz, J. E., Broderick, J. E., & Deaton, A. (2010). A snapshot of the age distribution of psychological well-being in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(22), 9985–9990. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1003744107
Tamir, M., & Ford, B. Q. (2012). Should people pursue feelings that feel good or feelings that do good? Emotional preferences and well-being. Emotion, 12(5), 1061–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027223
Tully-Wilson, C., Bojack, R., Millear, P. M., Stallman, H. M., Allen, A., & Mason, J. (2021). Self-perceptions of aging: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Psychology and aging, 36(7), 773–789. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000638
Velaithan, V., Tan, M. M., Yu, T. F., Liem, A., Teh, P. L., & Su, T. T. (2024). The Association of Self-Perception of Aging and Quality of Life in Older Adults: A Systematic Review. The Gerontologist, 64(4), gnad041. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad041
Weiss, D. (2014). What will remain when we are gone? Finitude and generation identity in the second half of life. Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 554–562.
Weiss, D. (2018). On the inevitability of aging: Essentialist beliefs moderate the impact of negative age stereotypes on older adults’ memory performance and physiological reactivity. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 73(6), 925–933. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw087
Weiss, D., & Staudinger, U. M. (2015). Threat or challenge? Essentialist beliefs, age stereotypes, and cognitive performance in old age. The Gerontologist, 55(2), 611–612.
Weiss, D., & Weiss, M. (2016). The interplay of subjective social status and essentialist beliefs about cognitive aging on cortisol reactivity to challenge in older adults. Psychophysiology, 53(8), 1256–1262. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12667
Weiss, D., Job, V., Mathias, M., Grah, S., & Freund, A. M. (2016). The end is (not) near: Aging, essentialism, and future time perspective. Developmental Psychology, 52(6), 996–1009. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000115
Weiss, D., Reitz, A. K., & Stephan, Y. (2019). Is age more than a number? The role of openness and (non)essentialist beliefs about aging for how young or old people feel. Psychology and Aging, 34(5), 729–737. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000370
Wurm, S., Warner, L. M., Ziegelmann, J. P., Wolff, J. K., & Schüz, B. (2013). How do negative self-perceptions of aging become a self-fulfilling prophecy? Psychology and Aging, 28(4), 1088–1097. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032845
Zanjari, N., Momtaz, Y. A., Kamal, S. H. M., Basakha, M., & Ahmadi, S. (2022). The influence of providing and receiving social support on older adults’ wellbeing. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 18, e174501792112241. https://doi.org/10.2174/17450179-v18-e2112241
Zingoni, M., & Corey, C. M. (2017). How mindset matters: The direct and indirect effects of employees’ mindsets on job performance. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 16(1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000171
Cite this article:
Sandhu, I. & Dhaliwal, A.K. (2026). Evaluating a PERMA model intervention for reducing essentialist beliefs and enhancing well-being among older adults. International Review of Social Sciences Research, 6(1), 62-86. https://doi.org/10.53378/irssr.353308
License:
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) International License.
Find this article in:
Most read articles
- Social media usage and the academic performance of Filipino junior high school students
- Exploring the factors influencing commuters’ satisfaction and the use of public utility buses in Quezon City, Philippines
- A narrative exploration of romantic experiences and ideal relationship standards among Filipino Gen Z
- Students’ exposure to social media and their radical involvement on the societal issues in the Philippines
- ChatGPT integration significantly boosts personalized learning outcomes: A Philippine study
- Tiktok made me book it: The impact of Tiktok on tourism destination selection of generation Z and millennials in Manila
- Senior high school students’ awareness and literacy on computer software applications
- Self-perception of ABM students towards their academic, social and emotional college preparedness
- Enhancing financial literacy among Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program beneficiaries
- Emotional intelligence and leadership efficacy of university student leaders